It seems almost unnecessary to say: The values of coexistence and tolerance for "the other" seem to be under attack almost all over the globe. Although ethnocentrism is not new, it seems to have become increasingly destructive following the end of the Cold War. Nationalistic movements have begun anew, fueled with much more sophisticated weapons; at the same time, there is a growing dependence on guerilla, "unconventional," or "asymmetric" warfare, which, while not sophisticated, is especially hard to stop. Exacerbating the problem is the "shrinking world" — global economic interdependence, global media, and global travel bringing people with disparate cultures and beliefs into contact (and competition) with each other much more often than used to be the case. This opens the door to conflict, as some people think they are getting cheated or exploited; others think their cultures or identities are under attack. Convincing people to accept other views and other people — especially people who have harmed them in the past — is very difficult. Yet, it is essential if war in the 21st century is to be contained.

There are tremendous pressures against tolerance, so trying to instill it is an uphill struggle. But there are a number of approaches that have been used successfully (at least on a small scale, and some on a larger scale as well). The following articles discuss the problem of intolerance:

• Enemy Images In Rwanda, the Tutsis were referred to as the enemy, cockroaches and rats. These extreme enemy images paved the way for the atrocities of the Rwandan genocide.

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• Dehumanization Dehumanization has the power to justify society's most violent and terrible impulses. If outsiders such as the Jews in Germany or the Tutsis in Rwanda are seen as less than human, then this clears the way to commit atrocities against them.
• Stereotypes / Characterization Frames Stereotypes are simplified, and often highly inaccurate, images of the motivations and behaviors of others. When in error, they can lead to and escalate conflicts.
• DelegitimizationThis is another essay on negative stereotypes, which the author refers to as "delegitimization." This is one of the major forces that feeds violence and prevents a peaceful resolution.
• Prejudice Harry Bridges wrote, "No man has ever been born a Negro hater, a Jew hater, or any other kind of hater. Nature refused to be involved in such suicidal practices." This essay discusses how prejudice develops, what its effects are, and what can be done to change it.
• Into-the-Sea Framing When a conflict becomes intractable, many people hope that their enemy will simply disappear. They pursue overwhelming victory without ever really considering the fact that they will still have to live with their enemies after the conflict.

• Tolerance   William Ury explained, "tolerance is not just agreeing with one another or remaining indifferent in the face of injustice, but rather showing respect for the essential humanity in every person."
• Coexistence   In a state of coexistence, the parties agree to respect each other's differences and resolve their conflicts nonviolently.
• Dialogue Dialogue is one technique that has been widely used to increase understanding between "enemies." In dialogue, the intention is not to advocate but to inquire; not to argue but to explore; not to convince but to discover. This essay introduces the concept of dialogue, discusses why it is needed, and suggests ways to do it effectively. Some examples of how this has been used to increase tolerance and co-existence are found below as well.
• Narratives and Story-Telling Stories have been vital to all cultures throughout history. Recently, they have been purposefully employed as tools to promote empathy between adversaries and to help people heal from past trauma.
• Conversation as a Tool of Conflict Transformation This essay examines the power of interpersonal conversation in helping people develop positive relationships and transform their conflicts. It discusses the general theory of conversation, while the companion case study on Zimbabwe explores how the ideas discussed in this essay have been applied to a real-world situation.
• Envisioning   Envisioning is a process in which people try to see into the future — not only what they expect to happen, but what they would like to happen. In order to attain "peace," people must have an image of what "peace" would look like. Only then can they figure out what they need to do to get there.
• Joint Projects   Adversaries usually focus on their differences, while neglecting their common interests. One way to overcome this problem is by organizing and pursuing joint projects, which can help to repair the parties' relationship.

Book Summaries:

• Overcoming Intolerance in South Africa: Experiments in Democratic Persuasion
  James L. Gibson and Amanda Gouws
  Political tolerance is important for the survival of a democratic state. Unfortunately, tolerance is often in short supply during the transition to democracy. Gibson explores the interaction between political tolerance and democracy in South Africa.
• The Mindsets Factor in Ethnic Conflict: A Cross-Cultural Agenda
  Glen Fisher
  A given conflict is often approached with wildly different and sometimes incongruent mindsets. In order to overcome these differences, it is necessary to first understand the mindset of other parties as best one can, and then to tailor one's strategy to that understanding. The process for accomplishing this is discussed here.
• Autonomy: Flexible Solutions to Ethnic Conflicts
  Ruth Lapidoth
  Autonomy is a means for the diffusion of political power in order to preserve the unity of a state while respecting the diversity of its population. Lapidoth analyzes the concept of autonomy and assesses its usefulness in the resolution of ethnic conflicts.
• Ethnic Conflict and International Relations
  Stephan Ryan
  Local political systems can either exacerbate ethnic rivalries or help to subdue them. Likewise, international politics can either intensify hostilities or help to calm them. This book examines political systems and policies (both locally and internationally) to determine which policies are better or worse at resolving ethnic tensions.
• From Confrontation to Cooperation: Resolving Ethnic and Regional Conflict
  Jay Rothman
  Ethnicity is at the base of some of the most protracted contemporary conflicts (such as Israel-Palestine). This book attempts to provide the tools necessary to transform ethnic conflicts from adversarial positions, to integrative solutions.
• Moral Conflict
  W. Barnett Pearce and Stephen W. Littlejohn
  Conflicts based on deep moral differences may be aggravated when traditional conflict resolution techniques are used. To avoid this, Littlejohn and Pearce develop new communication patterns they term transcendent discourse. Transcendent discourse can help to literally transcend moral differences, and encourage mutual respect.
• Resolving Identity-Based Conflict: In Nations, Organizations, and Communities
  Jay Rothman
  Identity based conflicts engage strong passions, which can lead to either great destruction or relationship transformation. Rothman develops a framework (ARIA) for transforming identity conflicts into productive relationships.

Other Resources of Interest:

• Young, M.I. Justice and the Politics of Difference. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990.
  Publisher's Description
• Anselm K. Min, "From difference to the solidarity of others," in Philosophy & Social Criticism, (31: 7, 2005), pp. 823-849.
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• Paula M. Pickering, "Generating Social Capital for bridging Ethnic Divisions in the Balkans: Case Studies of Two Bosniak cities," in Ethnic and Racial Studies, (29: 1, 2006), pp. 79-103.
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• Bohm, James. "Public Reason and Cultural Pluralism: Political Liberalism and the Problem of Moral Conflict." pp. 253-279 In Political Theory. 23:2, 1995.
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• Dowlin, Sheryl and Bruce Dowlin. "Healing History's Wounds: Reconciliation Communication Efforts to Build Community Between Minnesota Dakota (Sioux) and Non-Dakota Peoples." In Peace and Change, 27: 3, 2002.
  Consortium Article Abstract
• Gutmann, Amy and Dennis Thompson. Democracy and Disagreement: Why Moral Conflict Cannot be Avoided in Politics, and What Should be Done About It, Reprint Edition. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1998.
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• Heidlebaugh, N.J. Judgment, Rhetoric, and the Problem of Incommensurability: Recalling Practical Wisdom. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001.
  Publisher's Description
• Pearce, W. Barnett and Stephen W. Littlejohn. Moral Conflict: When Social Worlds Collide. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage, 1997.
  Consortium Abstract
• Streich, Gregory. "Constructing Multiracial Democracy: To Deliberate or Not to Deliberate." In Constellations, (9:1, 2002).
  Consortium Article Abstract
• Benedicto R. Bacani. 2004. Bridging theory and practice in peace education: The Notre Dame University peace education experience. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, vol. 21, no. 4, Summer. 503-511.
  Author's Description
• Elizabeth A. Gassin, Robert D.Enright, and Jeanette A.Knutson. 2005. "Bringing Peace to the Central City: Forgiveness Education in Milwaukee." In Theory Into Practice, Vol. 44, No. 4: pages 319-328.
  Consortium Article Abstract
• Tricia S. Jones. 2005. "Implementing Community Peace and Safety Networks in South Africa." In Theory Into Practice, Vol. 44, No. 4: pages 345-354.
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• Haggai Kupermintz and Gavriel Salomon. 2005. "Lessons to Be Learned From Research on Peace Education in the Context of Intractable Conflict." In Theory Into Practice, Vol. 44, No. 4: pages 293-302.
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• Ulrike Niens and Ed Cairns. 2005. "Conflict, Contact, and Education in Northern Ireland." In Theory Into Practice, Vol. 44, No. 4: pages 337-344.
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• Ohanyan, Anna and Lewis, John E., "Politics of Peace-Building: Critical Evaluation of Interethnic Contact and Peace Education in Georgian-Abkhaz Peace Camp, 1998-2002. Peace and Change Jan2005, Vol. 30 Issue 1, p57-84.
  Author's Description
• Littlejohn, Stephen. "The Transcendent Communication Project: Searching for a Praxis of Dialogue." In Conflict Resolution Quarterly, (21:3, 2004).
  Consortium Article Abstract
• Gavriel Salomon. 2004. Does Peace Education Make a Difference in the Context of an Intractable Conflict? Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology. Vol. 10, No. 3, 257-274.
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• Michael Wessells. 2005. "Child Soldiers, Peace Education, and Postconflict Reconstruction for Peace." In Theory Into Practice, Vol. 44, No. 4: pages 363-369.
  Author's Description
• Paula M. Pickering, "Generating Social Capital for bridging Ethnic Divisions in the Balkans: Case Studies of Two Bosniak cities," in Ethnic and Racial Studies, (29: 1, 2006)), pp. 79-103.
  Author's Description
• United Nations Education, Social, and Cultural Organization Materials on tolerance, learning to live together, and other educational resources.
• Southern Poverty Law Center Web Project Resources for schools and teachers on teaching tolerance.
• Racism No Way Classroom materials to help recognize and eliminate racism.
• Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies Lessons for using visual arts to teach coexistence.
• Educators for Social Responsibility Lessons for teaching conflict resolution and inclusion with a national and international emphasis.
• Educators for Social Responsibility, New York City Lessons for teaching conflict resolution and inclusion developed for urban schools
• Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Teacher and student resources on racism, sexism, indigenous, and disabilities rights.
• Workable Peace Project Web Site The Workable Peace curriculum integrates the study of intergroup conflict and the development of critical thinking, problem solving, and perspective-taking skills into social studies and humanities content. It helps teachers and students understand and make connections among conflicts around the world, in the United States, and in their own schools and communities. The curriculum provides teachers with an academically rigorous framework and a rich set of materials for teaching about conflict as a major theme in history and current events. Using a unique combination of content and skill activities, it enables students to learn about history in ways that enliven the imagination, awaken moral reasoning, and impart social and civic skills that they can use throughout their lives.
• Identity based conflict
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• Enemy Images
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• Stereotype detriment
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