Contemporary education and training institutions overwhelmingly train people in "destructive-conflict-as-usual" practices. In addition, the vast majority of people working in conflict roles have already completed virtually all of their lifetime education and training. There are, therefore, relatively few opportunities for people to spend substantial amounts of time re-examining their images of conflict processes and learning new conflict skills. However, any significant change in the way we approach conflict will require a massive education program capable of reaching large numbers of people who don't even know, necessarily, that there is anything wrong with their current approach (see the pyschological and institutional resistance sections), and may not be interested in doing anything about it. While the magnitude of the program required can be limited by building on existing skills and institutions wherever possible, it's clear that large-scale information dissemination represents an enormous challenge.

We know a lot about persuasion, but it is generally more effective if it "preaches to the choir" — meaning it is targeted toward one's own group to reinforce things that they already believe. We need to learn much more about how to change people's minds and approaches when the things we want them to learn are new. Some essays that address this topic include the following:

• Training as Intervention   These essays focus on different approaches toward training for conflict interventions.

• Conflict Transformation Training as Intervention   This essay discusses the use of training as a means of conflict intervention, focusing especially on the author's work with both an external and local NGO in Manipur, India.
• Elicitive Training   The elicitive model of conflict resolution training encourages developing an intervention process from already-existing, local knowledge about managing conflict instead of imposing an outside culture's view of conflict resolution.
• Peace EducationPeace education involves practical and philosophical training that uses empowerment and nonviolence to build a more democratic, harmonious community.
• Civic Education Civic education programs aim to develop citizens' knowledge of the political system and create an engaged, politically informed populace.Return to Contents
• Cognitive DissonancePeople tend to ignore or "explain away" new information that conflicts with the way they currently think. Such "cognitive dissonance" can have both constructive and destructive effects on conflict.
• Drama in Conflict Transformation In The Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Friere argued the need for dialogic education as an essential element of emancipation from the oppression of hierarchical education laden with the presuppositions of prevailing power. Drama, Arendshorst observes, is one way to do that.

Book Summary:

• Article Summary of "Contributions of Training to International Conflict Resolution"
  by Eileen Babbit
  Babbitt observes that "when the participants in a conflict resolution training program are members of communities in conflict, the training becomes an intervention in that conflict."(p. 365) Training changes the way that participants view their conflict situation, and changes the way they understand their own and the other's sides. Training also gives the participants better skills in communication, negotiation and problem-solving, and a safe forum for trying out new approaches to conflict resolution.

Other Resources of Interest:

• Davies, Lynn. Conflict and Education: Complexity and Chaos. New York: Routledge, 2004.
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• Callon, Eamonn. Creating Citizens: Political Education and Liberal Democracy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
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• Griffin, Rosarii, ed. Education in Transition: International Perspectives on the Politics and Processes of Change. Oxford: Symposium Books, 2002.
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• Fiske, E.B., and H.F. Ladd. Elusive Equity: Education Reform in Post-Apartheid South Africa. Washington, DC: Brookings, 2004.
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• Harris, Ian M. and Mary Lee Morrison. Peace Education, 2nd ed. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 2003.
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• Salomon, G., and B. Nevo. Peace Education: The Concept, Principles, and Practices Around the World. Mahawah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 2002.
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• Benedicto R. Bacani. 2004. Bridging theory and practice in peace education: The Notre Dame University peace education experience. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, vol. 21, no. 4, Summer. 503-511.
  Author's Description
• Diane Bretherton, Jane Weston, and Vic Zbar. 2005. School-Based Peace Building in Sierra Leone. Theory Into Practice, Vol. 44, No. 4: pages 355-362.
  Author's Description
• Lynn Davies "Schools and war: urgent agendas for comparative and international education" Compare Volume 35, Number 4, Dec 2005, 357-371.
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• David W. Johnson and Roger T. Johnson. 2005. Essential Components of Peace Education. Theory Into Practice, Vol. 44, No. 4: pages 280-292.
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• Tricia S. Jones. 2005. "Implementing Community Peace and Safety Networks in South Africa." In Theory Into Practice, Vol. 44, No. 4: pages 345-354.
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• Haggai Kupermintz and Gavriel Salomon. 2005. "Lessons to Be Learned From Research on Peace Education in the Context of Intractable Conflict." In Theory Into Practice, Vol. 44, No. 4: pages 293-302.
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• Nevo, B., and; Brem, I. (2002). "Peace education programs and the evaluation of their effectiveness." In G. Salomon and B. Nevo (Eds.), Peace Education: The concept, principles, and practices around the world (pp. 271--282). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
  Author's Description
• Ulrike Niens and Ed Cairns. 2005. "Conflict, Contact, and Education in Northern Ireland." In Theory Into Practice, Vol. 44, No. 4: pages 337-344.
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• Ohanyan, Anna and Lewis, John E., "Politics of Peace-Building: Critical Evaluation of Interethnic Contact and Peace Education in Georgian-Abkhaz Peace Camp, 1998-2002. Peace and Change Jan2005, Vol. 30 Issue 1, p57-84.
  Author's Description
• Susan Opotow, Janet Gerson, and SarahWoodside. 2005. "From Moral Exclusion to Moral Inclusion: Theory for Teaching Peace." In Theory Into Practice, Vol. 44, No. 4: pages 303-318.
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• Gavriel Salomon. 2004. Does Peace Education Make a Difference in the Context of an Intractable Conflict? Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology. Vol. 10, No. 3, 257-274.
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• Dennis J. D. Sandole. 2004. "Conflict and education: Some personal reflections." In Conflict Resolution Quarterly, vol. 21, no. 4, Summer. 513-523.
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• Seth Spaulding. An Assessment of Educational Renewal and Reform in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, School of Education, 1998).
  Author's Description
• Alan Tidwell. 2004. Conflict, Peace, and Education: A Tangled Web. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, vol. 21, no. 4, Summer. 463-470.
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• James H. Williams. 2004. "Civil conflict, education, and the work of schools: Twelve propositions." In Conflict Resolution Quarterly, vol. 21, no. 4, Summer. 471-481.
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• Michael Wessells. 2005. "Child Soldiers, Peace Education, and Postconflict Reconstruction for Peace." In Theory Into Practice, Vol. 44, No. 4: pages 363-369.
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• Eckhardt, William. "Bridging the Gap Between Peace Action, Education, and Research." Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 25, No. 2 (June 1988): 179-185.
  Author's Description
• Bacani, Benedicto R. "Bridging Theory and Practice in Peace Educaton: The Notre Dame University Peace Education Experience." Conflict Resolution Quarterly, vol. 21, no. 4, Summer. 503-511.
  Publisher's Description
• Finkel, Steven E. "Can Democracy be Taught?" Journal of Democracy, vol. 14, no. 4, October 2003.
  Author's Description
• Slomczynski, K.M., and Shabad, G. "Can Support for Democracy and the Market be Learned in School? A Natural Experiment in Post-Communist Poland." Political Psychology, Vol. 19, no. 4, 1998.
  Author's Description
• Bretherton, Diane, Jane Weston, and Vic Zbar. "School-Based Peace Building in Sierra Leone." Theory Into Practice, Vol. 44, No. 2 (2005): 355-362.
  Author's Description
• Wheeler, Edyth and Aline Stomfay-Stitz. "Voices From the Field: Teachers Talk About Strategies for Peace and Conflict Resolution. (Peace Education and Conflict Resolution Network)." Childhood Education, 82.3, Spring 2006: 162-F(2).
  Author's Description
• Tidwell, Alan. "Conflict, Peace, and Education: A Tangled Web." Conflict Resolution Quarterly, Vol. 21, no. 4, Summer 2004: 462-470.
  Publisher's Description
• Johnson, David W. and Roger T. Johnson. "Essential Components of Peace Education." Theory Into Practice, Vol. 44, no. 4, 2005.
  Author's Description
• Amnesty International--USA Human rights teaching guides, lesson plans, and Urgent Actions geared to students.
• White Ribbon Campaign Lesson plans to explore attitudes/behavior that contribute to men's exclusion of women.
• United Nations Education, Social, and Cultural Organization Materials on tolerance, learning to live together, and other educational resources.
• Southern Poverty Law Center Web Project Resources for schools and teachers on teaching tolerance.
• Racism No Way Classroom materials to help recognize and eliminate racism.
• Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies Lessons for using visual arts to teach coexistence.
• Educators for Social Responsibility Lessons for teaching conflict resolution and inclusion with a national and international emphasis.
• Educators for Social Responsibility, New York City Lessons for teaching conflict resolution and inclusion developed for urban schools
• Oxfam Teachable resources on world issues
• United Nations Cyberschoolbus Teaching materials for educational use and training teachers; promotes education about international issues.
• Women's Educational Media Films for teaching inclusion of diverse groups.
• Psychologists for Social Responsibility, Peace Education Action Committee Information about peace education resources and application of psychological knowledge to peace education.
• World Council for Curriculum and Instruction International issues from theoretical and practical perspectives.
• People's Movement for Human Rights Education Resources on human rights education and advocacy
• United Nations High Commission on Refugees Teaching materials on refugee issues including curricula, games, and information brochures.
• Positive Practices Article Archive An alphabetically organized detailed list of annotated curricula, articles, and peace education resources.
• Social Justice Education Lessons and advocacy opportunities for social justice and learning to organize for social change.
• Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Teacher and student resources on racism, sexism, indigenous, and disabilities rights.
• Unite or Divide? The Challenges of Teaching History in Societies Emerging from Violent Conflict
• Workable Peace Project Web Site The Workable Peace curriculum integrates the study of intergroup conflict and the development of critical thinking, problem solving, and perspective-taking skills into social studies and humanities content. It helps teachers and students understand and make connections among conflicts around the world, in the United States, and in their own schools and communities. The curriculum provides teachers with an academically rigorous framework and a rich set of materials for teaching about conflict as a major theme in history and current events. Using a unique combination of content and skill activities, it enables students to learn about history in ways that enliven the imagination, awaken moral reasoning, and impart social and civic skills that they can use throughout their lives.
• Hague Appeal for Peace: Global Campaign for Peace Education Curriculum, resources, and advocacy materials.
• Osler, Audrey and Hugh Starkey. "Education for Democratic Citizenship: A Review of Research, Policy, and Practice 1995-2005." Available at: http://www.bera.ac.uk/publications/acreviews.php.
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• U. of Minnesota Human Rights Resource Center Curricula, topic guides, fact sheets and featured lessons on human rights.
• Peace Education
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• Civic Education
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• Elicitive Training
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• Drama conflict transformation
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