 | "Genocide"
"The tale of what happened during those dark days in Rwanda must be told again and again and again, not out of a morbid desire for gruesome tales, but out of a concern that the innocent dead should continuously sear the memories of the living. Only then can 'never again' cease to be an empty cry." -- Dr. Richard Sezibera, Rwandan Ambassador to the United States
This drawing was done by a child survivor as part of post-genocide trauma therapy. It is one of many such haunting pictures in Witness to Genocide: The Children of Rwanda. Edited by Richard A. Salem. Published by Friendship Press in conjunction with Conflict Management Initiatives (CMI), the book is available from CMI at http://www.cmi-salem.org. |
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Genocide Defined
Genocide is generally defined as the intentional extermination of a specific ethnic, racial, or religious group. Compared with war crimes and crimes against humanity, genocide is generally regarded as the most offensive crime. At worst, genocide pits neighbor against neighbor, or even husband against wife. Unlike war, where the attack is general and the object is often the control of a geographical or political region, genocide attacks an individual's identity, and the object is control -- or complete elimination -- of a group of people.
The history of genocide in the 20th century includes:
- the 1915 genocide of Armenians by Turks;
- the attempted extermination of European Jews by Nazis during World War II;
- the widespread genocide in Cambodia during the 1970s;
- the "ethnic cleansing"[1] in Kosovo by Serbs during the 1990s;
- the killing of Tutsis by Rwandan Hutus in 1994.[2]
Since 1948, the United Nations has defined genocide as "acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group, as such."[3] Actions included in this definition are:
- Killing members of a group;
- Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of a group;
- Deliberately inflicting on a group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
- Imposing measures intended to prevent births within a group;
- Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.
Notice that in the U.N. definition, murder is not the only way to destroy a group. For example, the recent Australian practice of forcibly removing biracial Aborigine children from their parents could be classified as genocide, since the goal of this practice was to assimilate the children into mainstream Australian culture, and thus slowly erode the Aborigine culture and population.[4]
 | "Soldiers Killing Neighbors"
This drawing was done by a child survivor as part of post-genocide trauma therapy, and appears in Witness to Genocide: The Children of Rwanda. (See the first drawing in this essay for bibliographic information) |
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Causes of Genocide
The underlying causes of conflicts that result in acts of genocide often have deep historical roots. Stereotypes and prejudices can develop over centuries. Ethnic and cultural distinctions often result in the formation of "in-group" and "out-group" thinking, where members of different races, religions, or cultures view each other as separate, alien, and "different." Identity groups are formed from such thinking.
In many regions, members of different identity groups, for mutual advantage, develop conflict prevention methods. Yet where resources are limited, or where pressures are placed on societies because of political or economic instability, relations may degrade. This can lead one group to become convinced that many of its problems are the fault of another group, and that all of those problems would be resolved if only the other group no longer existed. Guy Burgess has named this irrational and potentially dangerous idea the "into-the-sea" frame. Coexistence and power sharing are not considered to be viable options, and the more powerful group instead desires to exterminate the other (i.e., drive the other side "into the sea"). Often there is a "coherent and vicious elite" led by a majority-supported dictator who incites genocidal movements. Such movements find expression more readily when powerful political entities are made up of a common ethnicity and when minorities are marginalized.
"Can I see another's woe, and not be in sorrow too? Can I see another's grief, and not seek for kind relief?" -- William Blake
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Responding to Acts of Genocide
Genocide, like any morally relevant action, can be supported, denounced, or viewed with apathy. One's moral convictions will result in varying responses to genocidal acts. Perpetrators of genocide often feel completely justified in their actions, and may draw on local cultural or political values to curry favor. This can lead to a response of support, thereby furthering the criminal acts. Others, while not participating in the acts directly, may support them by financial or political means.
Still other groups may attempt to take a neutral, apathetic stance. International law and historical precedent, however, has made it extremely dangerous for relevant parties to attempt to merely stand by. An example of such behavior was the Swiss policy of neutrality in World War II.. In the mid-1990s Swiss banks were held accountable for servicing the financial interests of Nazi party members and for failing to settle accounts with Holocaust victims or their surviving family members. It would seem that parties that are in a position to oppose acts of genocide, but fail to do so, can expect punitive repercussions.
The international community, following international law, sometimes attempts to stop genocide before it happens, or while it is in process. Often, however, the ability to do anything effective is minimal. Another approach is punishment after-the-fact, which is supposed to not only extract retribution or justice, but also act as a deterrent against future genocidal acts. Whether the deterrence effect is real, however, is unclear.
Preventing acts of genocide has become an important topic in peace research. Preventing genocide implies understanding how genocidal motivations begin and how groups become powerful enough to impose their plans on their victims. This involves the ability to recognize how ethnic and political values mesh in potentially dangerous ways and how elite organizers of genocide obtain state power. In addition to developing working theories of how genocidal acts begin and progress, prevention also necessitates the ability to detect signs of genocidal schemes and respond to them as early as possible. Government investigation agencies (such as the FBI and Interpol), the United Nations, and independent human rights organizations (such as Amnesty International), utilize some early detection methods. Attempts to prevent genocide usually involve preventive diplomacy and violence prevention. Dealt with elsewhere in depth, suffice it to say here that this involves both Track I and Track II diplomatic efforts to diffuse tensions and try to encourage the parties to negotiate at least a settlement, if not a resolution of their differences -- enough to prevent widespread violence.
Sanctions are also sometimes used as deterrents or punishments for unacceptable behavior. For example, economic, financial and military sanctions were imposed against the Yugoslav Federation to try to end their support of the Serb's "ethnic cleansing," a euphemism for genocide. Military intervention may also be called upon, as was the case with U.N. peacekeeping forces and later NATO forces acting in Bosnia in the 1990s.
International law also supports after-the-fact prosecution of war criminals. International law was the force behind the Nuremberg trials of Nazi officers in the late 1940's and, in more modern times, the trial of former Yugoslavian president Slobodan Milosavic at The Hague. The International Criminal Court (ICC), established in 2002, is intended to make such prosecution more effective. Though adherence to the ICC Statute (the Rome Statute) varies from country to country,[5] 139 countries signed the initial statute and the 60-country ratification minimum required for the ICC to enter into force was reached on April 11, 2002. Both the United States and Russia have refused to accept the jurisdiction of the ICC, however, leading to questions about how effective the court can be without their participation.
Problems with Punishment
In actuality, all forms of punishment face difficult challenges. Many question the effectiveness, and the ethicality, of economic sanctions, especially since sanctions can easily affect an entire nation's economy, arguably punishing innocent citizens for the crimes of their government or of a powerful faction. Legal punishment for genocidal acts can be frustrated by an inability to find the individuals responsible. Also complicating the matter is the fact that the number of people who committed the crimes is often so large as to make a trial huge, costly, and impractical. Military action also presents the challenges of how to engage, when to intervene, and how long to stay when hostilities have subsided, in addition to the delay from the time when military action is deemed necessary and when (if at all) it is approved by the international community.
Threat of punishment can also prolong a conflict. If one side fears prosecution if they end the conflict, they may continue, even though they realize that they cannot win. One answer to this fear is offering amnesty to all sides, as was done in South Africa with the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Here the belief was that reconciliation and stability would be much more easy to achieve if people testified about their heinous actions, but then were forgiven, instead of prosecuted. This, many argue, has allowed that intractable conflict to be transformed much more effectively than it might have been, had whites been threatened with prosecution for crimes against humanity or other violations of international law.
The Aftermath of Genocide
Acts of genocide cause people to flee dangerous areas, becoming refugees or internally displaced people (IDPs). Great numbers of refugees fleeing to neighboring countries can be a social, political, and economic burden on those countries. Refugees often encounter discrimination in new countries, and may have no choice but to live in refugee camps, not knowing when or if they will return home. When they do return, they don't know if they will find their homes and possessions intact. This is but one of myriad problems faced by individuals, communities, and societies after a genocide ends.
Once the acts of genocide come under control, and accountability for the crimes is being enforced, the processes of peacebuilding, reconciliation, and healing must begin. Victim groups will, understandably, have a great deal of hatred for their oppressors. Relations between enemy ethnic groups must improve; otherwise retaliatory violence is essentially assured. Efforts to forge new relations between groups and to empower the victim group are justified. Realistically, though, true reconciliation will likely take a long time, as the crimes are horrible enough to make them nearly unforgivable.
The greatest challenge following genocide is rebuilding a society, since a conflict that at one time might have been resolved may now have become intractable. The rebuilt society must have a power-sharing form of government in order to prevent future inequalities that could lead to violent retaliation. Preventing a cycle of hatred and violence becomes the central challenge.
However, sharing power with one's past enemy, especially following such a horrible crime as genocide, may not be possible. Peace is often tenuous in these situations, as is the case today in Rwanda and Cambodia .
[1] Ethnic cleansing is a euphemism for genocide. Ethnic cleansing means "the purging, by mass expulsion or killing, of one ethnic or religious group by another" according to the Oxford English Dictionary "ethnic cleansing" avaliable at http://www.oed.com/. The term is derived from the Serbian and Croatian etniko ienje and was first used in the 1990s in the former Yugoslavia, especially to describe the actions taken by the Serbian government against ethnic Albanian Muslims living in Kosovo. The Serb government wished to have a Serbia for Serbs and tried to rid its southern region, Kosovo, of non-Serbs.
[2] Some moderate Hutus were also victims of mass killings in 1994.
[3] United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.
[4] Decoust, MichPle. "Australia 's Forgotten Dreamtime." [on-line] (Le Monde diplomatique, October 2000) Available from http://mondediplo.com/2000/10/14abos. Accessed 28 January 2002.
[5] Notably, the United States and China have not ratified the Rome Statute, each having political objections to certain aspects of the treaty. Negotiation efforts between the ICC and countries yet to ratify its power continue. For up-to-date information on such efforts, see http://www.iccnow.org/countryinfo.html
Use the following to cite this article:
McMorran, Chris and Norman Schultz. "Genocide ." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: August 2003 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/war_crimes_genocide/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
Stanton, Gregory H. "The 8 Stages of Genocide." , 1900
Available at: Click here for more info.
A discussion of how acts of genocide begin, how they gain momentum, and how perpetrators reflect on them after the fact. Includes historical examples.
The International Campaign to End Genocide
. Genocide Watch.
Available at: http://www.genocidewatch.org/internationalcampaign.htm.
An essay and statement regarding the relative ineffectiveness of standard punishments of genocide and why prevention is needed.
Holocaust and Genocide Studies.
Available at: http://hgs.oxfordjournals.org/.
The journal "Holocaust and Genocide Studies" features essays and reviews that discuss how insights into the Holocaust can be applied to other genocides around the world.
Rakita, Sara and Yoden Thonden. Lasting Wounds: Consequences of Genocide and War for Rwanda's Children. Human Rights Watch.
Available at: http://hrw.org/reports/2003/rwanda0403/.
This report details the human rights abuses Rwandan children still suffer eight years after the genocide. It discusses children languishing in prison, orphans and street children.
"Overview: Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court." , 1900
Available at: http://www.un.org/law/icc/general/overview.htm.
This United Nations site offers an excellent overview of the history and rationality behind the International Criminal Court.The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court of the United Nations includes specific definitions of genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.
Prevent Genocide International.
Available at: http://www.preventgenocide.org/genocide/.
This website provides numerous links with information about genocide.
Offline (Print) Sources
Minow, Martha L. Between Vengeance and Forgiveness: Facing History After Genocide and Mass Violence. Boston: Beacon Press, 1998.
This book looks at the capacity and limitations of formal national responses to genocide, systematic rapes, and mass torture. Such responses have come in the form of legal proceedings, truth commission, reparations, and memorials, and give rise to questions about retributive justice, forgiveness, and healing.
Staub, Ervin. "Genocide and Mass Killing: Origins, Prevention, Healing, and Reconciliation." Political Psychology 21:2, 2000.
This article focuses on intense collective violence, especially mass killing and genocide. It briefly presents a conception of their origins, with new elements in the conception and comparisons with other approaches. Various aspects of genocide and mass killing are considered, including their starting points (such as difficult life conditions and group conflict), cultural characteristics, psychological and social processes (such as destructive ideologies), the evolution of increasing violence and its effect on perpetrators and bystanders, and the roles of leaders and of internal and external bystanders. Actions that might be taken by the community of nations and other actors to halt or prevent violence are described. In considering prevention there is a focus on processes of healing within previously victimized groups and reconciliation between hostile groups. A project on healing, forgiveness, and reconciliation in Rwanda is briefly described.
Krain, Matthew. "State-Sponsored Mass Murder: The Onset and Severity of Genocides and Politicides." Journal of Conflict Resolution 41:3, June 1, 1997.
The author analyzes whether changes in the political opportunity structure (POS) or the concentration of state power best explains the beginnings and severity of politicide and genocide. Using logic statistics, the author shows that the presence of a civil war is the strongest indicator for state sponsored murder of ethnic groups and political opponents. Other POS variables, particularly when combined together, are also influential. Negative binomial event count models also support that variability in the POS provides a better indications of severity. These results suggest that openings POS have a greater affect on state directed killing than does the influence of concentration of power.
Shaw, Martin. War and Genocide: Organized Killing in Modern Society. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, June 2003.
"This comprehensive introduction to the study of war and genocide presents a disturbing case that the potential for slaughter is deeply rooted in the political, economic, social and ideological relations of the modern world. Most accounts of war and genocide treat them as separate phenomena. This book thoroughly examines the links between these two most inhuman of human activities. It shows that the generally legitimate business of war and the monstrous crime of genocide are closely related." -Publisher's Description
Gourevitch, Philip. We wish to inform you that tomorrow we will be killed with our families: stories from Rwanda. New York: Farrar Straus and Giroux, 1998.
The "stories" in this book's subtitle are both the author's, as he repeatedly visits this tiny country in an attempt to make sense of what has happened, and those of the people he interviews. These include a Tutsi doctor who has seen much of her family killed over decades of Tutsi oppression, a Schindleresque hotel manager who hid hundreds of refugees from certain death, and a Rwandan bishop who has been accused of supporting the slaughter of Tutsi schoolchildren, and can only answer these charges by saying, "What could I do?" Gourevitch, a staff writer for the New Yorker, describes Rwanda's history with remarkable clarity and documents the experience of tragedy with a sober grace. The reader will ask along with the author: Why does this happen? And why don't we bother to stop it? --Maria Dolan
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Examples Illustrating this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
The Armenian Genocide. Loyola Marymount University.
Available at: http://www.cilicia.com/armo10.html.
A historical account of acts of genocide perpetrated against ethnic Armenians by the Ottoman empire.
Survivor's Rights International.
Available at: http://www.survivorsrightsinternational.org/.
"It is the goal of Survivors' Rights International, Inc. (SRI) to ensure that the needs of victims of grave atrocities are effectively met. SRI further aims to secure the full acknowledgement of victims' voices during the commission of such atrocities, conflict resolution and restructuring processes. SRI strives to fill the gap between policy and victims' interests through educating the public on the issues and instances of contemporary acts of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes."
Decoust, Michele. "Australia's Forgotten Dreamtime." , 1900
Available at: http://mondediplo.com/2000/10/14abos.
This article discusses the Australian attempt at a slow genocide of its aboriginal population, from the first European settlers in 1788 to recent times. The author focuses on the persistence of racial bias toward aboriginal people in Australia, and the efforts of powerful individuals in the aboriginal community to rraise awareness about the problem.
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.
Available at: http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/p_genoci.htm.
United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide of 1948. This is a UN overview of genocide, including its definition and its inexcusability.
Fourth Annual Report of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Genocide and Other Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of Rwanda.
Available at: http://www.un.org/ga/54/doc/tcir.pdf.
The report addresses the activities of the Tribunal, including four judgments passed. The first of these was the first conviction for genocide ever delivered by an international court in the case of Prosecutor v. Jean Paul Akayesu.
Holocaust, Victim Assets Litigation.
Available at: http://www.swissbankclaims.com/.
This is the official information website for the Holocaust Victim Assets Litigation against Swiss Banks and other Swiss Entities.
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda.
Available at: http://69.94.11.53/.
This is the internet site of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR). The web site provides various information about the organization and work of the Tribunal. The Tribunal was established by a United Nations Security Council Resolution in 1994 to prosecute the organizers and leaders of the genocide in Rwanda in 1994.
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia.
Available at: http://www.un.org/icty/index.html.
This is the homepage for the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia. Site provides access to documents, judgments, cases, and bulletins on the cases being heard by the Tribunal regarding violations during the conflict in the former Yugoslavia.
Nuremberg War Crimes Trials.
Available at: http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/imt/imt.htm.
This site offers a comprehensive list of documents related to the Nuremberg war trials.
Report by a Resident of Syria on the Condition of Armenian DeporteesNovember 27, 1916. Armenian National Institute.
Available at: http://www.armenian-genocide.org/sampledocs/br-11-27-16-text.htm.
This is an official British document that describes the Turks genocidal treatment of the Armenians in the early part of the twentieth century.
Kritz, Neil J. Rwanda: Accountability for War Crimes and Genocide. United States Institute of Peace (USIP).
Available at: http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/early/rwanda1.
On September 16, 1994, the USIP convened a meeting to explore options for dealing with war crimes and genocide in Rwanda. Many of the options proposed at the conference were incorporated into a UN Security Council resolution on November 8, 1994, establishing a tribunal for Rwanda. This report contains in-depth analysis of these options in the context of the resolution and makes recommendations for enhancing the effort to bring perpetrators of atrocities in Rwanda and neighboring countries to justice.
Havermans, Jos. "Rwanda: Rwandan Crisis Lingers on." , 1999
Available at: Click here for more info.
This is an article about the on going conflicts in Rwanda.
The Ghetto Slaghters in Stolin, Rubel, and David-Horodok Through the Eyes of a Survivor. The Holocaust History Project.
Available at: Click here for more info.
A letter dated January 11, 1946, describes the details of the murders perpetrated on the Jews of the cities of Stolin, Rubele and David-Horodok. The letter was received from a young man named Michael Nosanchuk by his brother Boris Nosanchuk of Windsor, Ontario, Canada. The author of the letter was the sole survivor of his family and one of a mere handful of Jews who survived from the above mentioned cities. Miraculously he saved himself in the midst of the massacres.
Offline (Print) Sources
Vetlesen, Arne Johan. "Genocide: A Case for the Responsibility of the Bystander." Journal of Peace Research 37:4, July 1, 2000.
This essay clearly states that bystanders must take a stand in the face of genocide. In this age of technology and instant news around the world, Vetlesen argues that it is no longer possible to claim ignorance of atrocities like genocide and that doing nothing is tantamount to authorizing the continuation of the crime.
Alverez, Alex. Governments, Citizens, and Genocide: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary Approach. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, April 1, 2001.
This book comprehensively describes what genocide is, how it is played out by the various government agencies and leaders, and how the population is slowly turned into complicit actors. It ends with ideas of how genocide can be prevented.
Danieli, Yael, ed. International Handbook of Multigenerational Legacies of Trauma. New York: Plenum Press, January 1, 1998.
This volume is a compellation of essays that examine the costs and effects of violent conflict, genocide, and slavery.
Magnarella, Paul J. "Perspective on Rwandan genocide of 1994." In Justice in Africa, Rwanda's Genocide, Its Courts, and the UN Criminal Tribunal. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Company, February 1, 2000. Pages: 1-27.
Pages 1-27 of the book, Justice in Africa: Rwanda's genocide, its courts, and the United Nations criminal tribunal, give a historical and economical perspective on the Rwandan genocide of 1994, as well as a smaller and lesser-known genocide in 1972.
Staub, Ervin. The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence. New York: Cambridge University Press, January 1, 1989.
This book attempts to outline the social and psychological context that leads to an individual or society committing genocide and other similar crimes. The book also includes informative sections on the role of bystanders to genocide. The book outlines the 20th century's worst genocides and mass killings: the Holocaust, the Turkish genocide of Armenians, the Cambodian 'autogenocide,' and the disappearances in Argentina.
Prunier, Gerard. The Rwanda Crisis 1959-1994: History of a Genocide. Kampala: Fountain, January 1, 1995.
This book is wholly devoted to describing the genocide of 1994.
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Audiovisual Materials on this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
War Crimes Trials in Sierra Leone American Radio Works Documentary Probes Atrocities. NPR. June 6, 2003.
Available at: http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1289885.
A multinational war crimes court is working in the nation of Sierra Leone in West Africa to try to bring those who are responsible for the war crimes that were committed during the 1990s civil war.
Offline (Print) Sources
Chronicle Of A Genocide Foretold . Directed and/or Produced by: Lacourse, Daniele and Yvan Patry. First Run Icarus Films. 1996.
Shot over three years, this film follows several Rwandans before, during, and after the 1994 genocide.
Click here for more info.
Gacaca - Living Together Again in Rwanda? . Directed and/or Produced by: Aghion, Anne. First Run Icarus Films. 2002.
In this film Rwandans speak about genocide, justice, and what needs to be done in order to bring about reconciliation between the nation's people. Click here for more info.
Rwandan Nightmare. Directed and/or Produced by: Gallimore, Simon. First Run Icarus Films. 1994.
This video argues that the recent genocide in Rwanda was the consequence of a political power struggle, rather than of ethnic hatred. Click here for more info.
Yellow Wasps: Anatomy of a War Crime. Directed and/or Produced by: Ziv, Ilan. First Run Icarus Films. 1995.
This film questions whether justice can be found today in a world of global politics, as it monitors the Serbian war crimes trial against the Serbian paramilitary group know as the Yellow Wasps who were involved in atrocities of ethnic cleansing, and who received light sentences for their actions. Click here for more info.
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Teaching Materials on this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
Crimes of War Project.
Available at: http://www.crimesofwar.org/.
The Crimes of War Project is a collaboration of journalists, lawyers and scholars dedicated to raising public awareness of the laws of war and their application to situations of conflict.
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