What are Nongovernmental Organizations?
Additional insights into nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are offered by Beyond Intractability project participants.
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Nongovernmental organizations, or NGOs, are generally accepted to be organizations which have not been established by governments or agreements among governments. According to Harold Jacobson, author of one of the established texts in international organization, NGOs, like intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), have regularly scheduled meetings of their members' representatives, specified decision-making procedures, and a permanent staff.[1] Their members are usually individuals and private associations, rather than states, and they may be formally established networks of other organizations. A wide variety of NGOs function in intractable conflicts. These include conflict resolution NGOs, as well as those in humanitarian assistance, development, human rights, peacebuilding, and other areas.
While the term "NGOs" is sometimes used interchangeably with "grassroots organizations," "social movements," "major groups," and "civil society," NGOs are not the same as any of these. Grassroots organizations are generally locally organized groups of individuals which have spring up to empower their members and take action on particular issues of concern to them. Some NGOs are grassroots organizations. But many are not. Social movements are broader and more diffuse than organizations; a social movement encompasses a broad segment of society which is interested in fomenting or resisting social change in some particular issue--area, such as disarmament, environmental, civil rights, or women's movements.[2] A social movement may include NGOs and grassroots organizations. "Major groups" is a term coined at the time of the United Nations 1992 Rio "Earth Summit" as a part of Agenda 21 to encompass the societal sectors which were expected to play roles, in addition to nation-states and intergovernmental organizations, in environment and development. NGOs are identified as one of these sectors, but NGOs overlap with many of the other sectors; there are women's NGOs, farmers' NGOs, labor NGOs, and business NGOs, among others.[3] Finally "civil society" is a term that became popularized at the end of the Cold War to describe what appeared to have been missing in state-dominated societies, broad societal participation in and concern for governance, but not necessarily government. Civil society is thought to be the necessary ingredient for democratic governance to arise. NGOs are one part of civil society.
While it is often argued that NGOs are the voice of the people, representing grassroots democracy, a counter argument is made that NGOs have tended to reinforce, rather than counter, existing power structures, having members and headquarters that are primarily in the rich northern countries.[4] Some also believe that NGO decision-making does not provide for responsible, democratic representation or accountability.
NGOs themselves can be local, national, or international. Sometimes international NGOs are referred to as INGOs. Historically, most NGOs accredited to the UN Economic and Social Council have been international, but contrary to the popular wisdom, even the first group of NGOs accredited to ECOSOC in the 1940s included some national NGOs.
Nongovernmental organizations are not a homogenous group. The long list of acronyms that has accumulated around NGOs can be used to illustrate this. People speak of NGOs, INGOs (international NGOs), BINGOs (business international NGOs), RINGOs (religious international NGOs), ENGOs (environmental NGOs), GONGOs (government-operated NGOs -- which may have been set up by governments to look like NGOs in order to qualify for outside aid), QUANGOs (quasi-nongovernmental organizations -- i.e. those that are at least partially created or supported by states), and many others.
While some other groups are nongovernmental, they are not usually included under the term NGO. The term usually explicitly excludes for-profit corporations, and private contractors, and multinational corporations (MNCs), although associations formed by MNCs, such as the International Chamber of Commerce, are considered NGnOs. Similarly, political parties, liberation movements, and terrorist organizations are not usually considered NGOs. Recently, however, some from outside the field of international organization, especially military writers, have begun to refer to terrorist movements as NGOs, some would say in order to discredit NGOs. Peter Willetts, an authority on NGOs, argues in defining NGOs that "a commitment to non-violence is the best respected of the principles defining an NGO."[5]
Why do Non-Governmental Organizations Matter?
In the early 1990s there began to be a recognition of the importance of NGOs. NGOs were found to have closer ties to on-the-ground realities in developing countries and, perhaps more important, to be able to deliver development aid considerably more cheaply than states or intergovernmental organizations.
As the UN Secretary-General's 1998 report stated, "In terms of net transfers, non-governmental organizations collectively constitute the second largest source of development assistance".[6] An article in the New York Times just before the UN Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 cited development successes by NGOs such as the Trickle-Up Program, and stressed their low costs and high impact.[7] NGOs also began to play a role in humanitarian assistance in conjunction with peacekeeping missions. They began to be referred to increasingly in UN resolutions, and some even began to meet informally with members of the UN Security Council to coordinate actions in emergency situations.
Both the number of nongovernmental organizations and their involvement in national and international policy-making have increased tremendously over the last half century and especially the last several decades. At the time of the foundation of the United Nations in 1945 there were 2865 international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs); by 1990 that number had increased to 13,591.[8] This compared to 3443 international intergovernmental organizations and roughly 200 nation-states. But, more important, in the 1990s there began to be a recognition of the import of the NGO role. In human rights, development, environment, and even disarmament, NGOs had begun to be recognized for their role in influencing public policy at the UN and on-the-ground in nation-states.[9]
NGOs also matter in intractable conflicts. NGOs play a variety of both positive and negative roles, from conflict resolvers doing Track II diplomacy, to development aid and humanitarian assistance, which can exacerbate or reduce conflict, to human rights advocacy, to election monitoring, to disarmament and environment work. Mary Anderson has stressed the importance of both development aid and conflict resolution organizations being sure, first of all, to do no harm.[10]
NGOs and the United Nations
NGOs have come to have an important role in the United Nations system.
Neither the original July 18, 1944 "US Tentative Proposals for a General International Organization," nor the Dumbarton Oaks Proposals put forth by the four major powers (the US, UK, Soviet Union, and China) October 7, 1944, contained any reference to the role of non-governmental organizations, but only to what would become the specialized agencies of the UN system.[11]
However, the US Delegation to the San Francisco Conference included representatives of 42 national organizations as Consultants. These included organizations in the fields of labor, law, agriculture, business, and education, plus women's, church, veterans', and civic organizations. A recommendation by these consultants for a paragraph providing for consultation between NGOs and ECOSOC played into the international dynamics over the representation of international labor unions, and led to the inclusion of Article 71 of the Charter, which allowed for NGOs which said:[12]
The Economic and Social Council may make suitable arrangements for consultation with non-governmental organizations which are concerned with matters within its competence. Such arrangements may be made with international organizations and, where appropriate, with national organizations after consultation with the Member of the United Nations concerned.
By the time of the UN Conference on Environment and Development, the "Earth Summit" in 1992, some 1420 NGOs were accredited to attend the Rio conference itself, while perhaps 25,000 NGO participants from 9,000 NGOs attended the parallel NGO Global Forum (set up for those NGOs that were interested in, but not accredited to attend the UN Summit itself).
Table 1:
Number of non-governmental organizations in consultative status with the UN Economic and Social Council | | | | Year | General | Special | Roster | Total | | 1948 | 7 | 32 | 2 | 41 | | 1968 | 12 | 143 | 222 | 377 | | 1991 | 41 | 354 | 533 | 928 | | 1993 | 42 | 376 | 560 | 978 | | 1995 | 69 | 436 | 563 | 1,068 | | 1996 | 81 | 499 | 646 | 1,126 | | 1997 | 88 | 602 | 666 | 1,356 |
| | | | Source: UN/ECOSOC. "Work of the Non-Governmental Organizations Section of the Secretariat, Report of the Secretary-General." 8 May 1998 (E/1998/43). |
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With this increase in interest in consultative status, in 1993 ECOSOC requested a general review of NGO consultative arrangements in order to improve the coherency of rules for NGO participation in UN conferences, as well as the practical arrangements of both the Committee on NGOs and the NGO Section of the Secretariat.[13] On July 25, 1996 the 49th plenary meeting of ECOSOC approved a Resolution 1996/31, updating the arrangements for consultation with non-governmental organizations. Similar to the two previous resolutions, it provided for general consultative status (organizations concerned with most of the activities of the Council and broadly representative of populations in a large number of countries), special consultative status (internationally known organizations with special competence in a few of the fields of activity of the Council), and roster status (other useful organizations), and allocated different rights to them in attending meetings, speaking, and receiving documents, among others.[14]
ECOSOC, along with the General Assembly and the Secretary-General wrestled with the question of NGO involvement in the UN system throughout the 90s and early 2000s.
Finally, in June 2004, the Secretary-General's Panel of Eminent Persons on Civil Society and UN Relationships issued its report, arguing that the UN should
- invest more in partnerships,
- focus on the country level,
- deepen the NGO-Security Council dialogue, and
- engage more with elected representatives.
It also suggested a single accreditation process under the General Assembly and a new Under-Secretary-General in charge of a new Office of Constituency Engagement and Partnerships. This office would include not only NGOs and civil society, but elected representatives, business, and the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues.[15] NGO reactions to these proposals varied greatly, from interest in the possibility of more General Assembly access, to fear that this was simply a move to increase the role of business in the UN system.
NGO Action, in and Around the UN, and in the Field
Nongovernmental organizations have used their consultative status at the UN to affect intractable conflict in many ways. They have organized to get the General Assembly and other UN organs to pass resolutions on disarmament, on development, on human rights, and on other subjects related to the underlying sources of conflicts. They have helped to develop new UN institutions and treaties. They have been the instigators of putting new issues on the UN agenda, issues like environment, women's rights, and child soldiers. They have gotten UN bodies to put questions of armament and disarmament before the World Court, and have been important in the development of the International Criminal Court. They have delivered humanitarian assistance and aided refugees, and have worked on development in societies that have recently experienced violent conflict.
For example, The World Court Project, begun in New Zealand in 1986, was largely responsible for getting the World Health Organization and the General Assembly to ask the advisory opinion of the World Court on the legality of nuclear weapons. The International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW), which had received a Nobel Peace Prize in 1985 for its work on nuclear weapons, sponsored a resolution at its World Congress in 1988. The project spread to the World Congress of the International Association of Lawyers Against Nuclear Arms (IALANA), and to other states, with the aid of newsletter coverage by the Parliamentarians for Global Action.
Using Article 66 of the Charter, which allows other organs, in addition to the UN General Assembly, to request World Court advisory opinions, the IPPNW convinced the World Health Organization to adopt a resolution on the subject on May 14, 1993.[16] After the case went to the Court in September 1993, IALANA and IPPNW drafted model submissions, which were used by some states. The World Court Registrar received citizen delegations with documents and petitions in 1994 and 1995.
Nuclear weapons states and others argued that, not WHO, but the UN General Assembly, was the correct venue for such a question. The Lawyers' Committee on Nuclear Policy, the US affiliate of IALANA, pushed for the adoption of a resolution by the UN General Assembly First Committee. Having achieved the support of the Non-Aligned Movement, the resolution was adopted 18 November 1994. In December 1994 the resolution was adopted by the General Assembly. Within days the case arrived at the World Court, who decided to consider the WHO and General Assembly questions separately but simultaneously. The World Court delivered its decision on July 8, 1996, finding threat or use of nuclear weapons contrary to the law of armed conflict, and in particular international humanitarian law, but not concluding in the case of self-defense.
In this case NGOs used access through states and through consultative status with ECOSOC, coupled with legal expertise and social movement organizing, to obtain a result from the International Court of Justice that powerful nuclear states had opposed. This pattern was echoed in several other cases outside the realm of economic and social issues. Secretary-General Kofi Annan has repeatedly indicated how important the role of NGOs has been with respect to the development of the International Criminal Court and the 1997 land mines treaty.
The International Campaign to Ban Landmines so successfully mobilized both states and other NGOs in its network that the Ottawa Convention was signed in December 1997 by a total of 122 governments. In September 1998, Burkina Faso became the 40th country to ratify the Mine Ban Treaty, triggering its entry into force in March 1999, record time for an international treaty. The Ottawa Process launched in October 1996 and concluding with the Convention's opening for signature, won Jody Williams and the ICBL the Nobel Peace Prize in 1997. It was a unique cooperation between a core group of likeminded governments and the ICBL NGOs, developed in a series of meetings in Vienna, Bonn, Brussels and Oslo over the course of 1997, outside the UN system, and relying on voting, rather than consensus. The ICBL participated in discussions and negotiations inside, while outside it worked with the media, and raised public awareness, and networked with other NGOs to lobby governments.
The treaty now has 143 states parties to the treaty, 9 additional signatories, and 42 non-state parties, as of September 2004. NGOs continue to encourage signature and ratification of the treaty and monitor compliance
Informal dialogues have also become an important mechanism linking NGOs with the UN. Beginning early in 1995 Jim Paul of the Global Policy Forum and others began to organize the NGO Working Group on the Security Council. This intensified as coordination of humanitarian aid and security questions in complex emergencies led to discussion between Security Council members and certain humanitarian organizations, especially focusing on Africa in 1997. The roughly 30 NGOs representatives form a closed group including six religious NGOs, six human rights NGOs, and a number of humanitarian assistance and development NGOs, as well as two women's groups and others such as a representative of the International Peace Academy, Lawyer's Committee for Nuclear Policy, the Coalition for the International Criminal Court, the UN Foundation, World Federalist Movement, and the Hague Appeal for Peace. They have met increasingly, privately and off-the-record, with members of the Security Council, providing field information to members of the Council from crisis areas, as well as providing a link to the public.[17] Until recently, the elected head of the group was the representative of the Quaker United Nations Office, a very small but effective NGO which facilitates delegates' work at the UN and often holds off-the-record dialogues of its own on topics ranging from environmental negotiations to conflicts between divided states. Quakers and Mennonites, both members of the NGO working group, have also done mediation work for a very long time in intractable conflict areas around the world.
Many other NGOs have also worked directly in conflict resolution efforts in the field. The Pugwash and Dartmouth Conferences have been active over many decades, especially on arms control issues and across Cold War boundaries. The Community of Sant'Egidio was important in working in complementary fashion with governments negotiating peace in Mozambique.
The International Crisis Group has monitored for signs of genocide, among its other activities. Search for Common Ground has run dialogues, supported women's peace groups in Burundi, funded radio stations to provide a peace voice.[18] International Alert and the Forum on Early Warning and Early Response (FEWER) and many other NGOs worked to develop early warning of conflicts turning violent. Women's groups have also been significant, with the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom working on disarmament issues at the UN in Geneva for decades, and in New York being one of the primary groups to work with the Security Council on the development of Resolution 1325 in 2000, on the involvement of women in armed conflict and in peace negotiations.
The roles of NGOs in intractable conflict are multiple, from direct conflict resolution, Track Two diplomacy, and mediation in crisis and long-term conflict areas, to assistance in monitoring elections, to delivery of humanitarian assistance and development aid, to advocacy of human rights and justice, to lobbying governments to develop the long-term conditions which promote international peace and security. Their roles are often, but not always, positive, but they are not usually the primary players in any of these arenas. But without these NGOs, many of the accomplishments of states and international organizations would not have been possible.
[1]Harold K. Jacobson. 1984. Networks of Interdependence: International Organizations and the Global Political System. Second edition. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984), 4-10.
[2] For definition and discussion of these and other social movements see Roger S. Powers and William B. Vogele (eds.), 1997, Protest, Power, and Change: An Encyclopedia of Nonviolent Action from ACT-UP to Women's Suffrage. New York: Garland Publishing Inc.
[3] Section 3, Chapters 23-32, "Strengthening the Role of Major Groups," includes women, children and youth, indigenous people, NGOs, local authorities, workers and trade unions, business and industry, the scientific and technological community, and farmers. See United Nations Department of Public Information, Earth Summit Agenda 21: the United Nations Programme of Action from Rio. New York: UN DPI/1344, April 1993, pp. 219-245.
[4] See for example Elise Boulding, 1977, Women in the Twentieth Century World. New York: John Wiley, pp. 165-218, for the argument that NGOs represent the voice of the people in a landscape of money and power.
[5] Peter Willetts. "Non-Governmental Organizations," Article 1.44.3.7 in UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Sciences.
(www.staff.city.ac.uk/p.willetts/CS/NTWKS/NGO-ART.HTM).
[6] Report of the Secretary-General: Arrangements and practices for the interaction of non-governmental organizations in all activities of the United Nations system. A/53/170 (10 July 1998)
[7] Paul Lewis, "Fixing World Crises Isn't Just a Job for Diplomats," New York Times, April 5, 1992, section 4, p 4.
[8] Compiled by author from Yearbook of International Organizations, 1990-91. Table 4, pp. 1665-68.
[9] One of the first major news articles on NGOs at the UN was Paul Lewis, "Fixing World Crises Isn't Just a Job for Diplomats," New York Times, April 5, 1992, section 4, p. 4, which looked at NGOs in the context of the UNCED PrepCom.
[10] Mary Anderson. Do No Harm: How Aid Can Support Peace - or War. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1999.
[11] See first text in U.S. Department of State, Postwar Foreign Policy Preparation, 1939-1945, Publication 3580 (February 1950) Appendix 38, pp. 595-606.
See second text in "Dumbarton Oaks Proposals for the Establishment of a General International Organization," in U.S. Department of State, Dumbarton Oaks Documents on International Organization, Publication 2257 (1945), pp 5-16.
[12]For more detailed discussion of the early stages of NGO consultative status in the UN, see Carolyn M. Stephenson, "NGOs and the Principal Organs of the United Nations," in Paul Taylor and A.J.R. Groom (eds.), The United Nations at the Millennium: The Principal Organs. (London: Continuum, 2000), 273-276.
[13] ECOSOC Resolution 1993/80, 30 July 1993.
[14] For more detail on the further development of UN-NGO relations, see Stephenson, 276-294.
[15] Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Eminent Persons on Civil Society and UN Relationships, June 21, 2004.
[16] http://www.un.org/reform/panel.htm
[17] Global Policy Forum, NGO Working Group on the Security Council Information Statement July 2003. www.globalpolicy.org/security/ngowkgrp/statements/current.htm.
[18] Herding Cats
Use the following to cite this article:
Stephenson, Carolyn . "Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: January 2005 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/role_ngo/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
Mertus, Julie. Considerations for Human Rights Fact Finding by NGOs.
Available at: http://academic3.american.edu/~mertus/HR%20fact-finding.htm.
This piece offers and outline of key issues that non-governmental organizations should consider as they put together fact-finding missions. Topics include the selection of fact-finders, collection of evidence, on-site interviews and inspections, and writing up reports.
Helping Prevent Violent Conflict (The DAC Guidelines).
Available at: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/15/54/1886146.pdf.
This 146-page-on-line book gives NGO's and other organizations guiding principles to follow in their work to prevent violent conflict. Issues of peace-building, security, development, justice, reconciliation, and co-operation are addressed.
Meier, Oliver and Clare Tenner. Non-governmental monitoring of international agreements. Verification Research, Training, and Information Center.
Available at: http://www.vertic.org/assets/VY01_Meier_Tenner.pdf.
The Verification Research, Training, and Information Center (VERTIC) is dedicated to verifiying international agreements. As well they train individuals on how to do so and provide information of verification actions. This article is mainly about the role of NGOs in verification tasks.
Richmond, Oliver P. "Post Westphalian Peace-Building: The Role of NGOs." , 2001
Available at: Click here for more info.
"This paper discusses the increasing focus on issues pertaining to human security , and the emerging role of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in the development of multidimensional peace-building activities."
Offline (Print) Sources
van Tongeren, Paul J.M. "Coordination and Codes of Conduct: The Challenge of Coordination and Networking." In Peacebuilding: A Field Guide. Edited by Reychler, Luc and Thania Paffenholz, eds. Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 2001.
With so many entities (governments, NGOS, IGOs) involved in conflict resolution and peacebuilding, coordinating those efforts can be a challenge. Van Tongeren discusses that this coordination is not only desirable, but also attainable. The chapter discusses how, particularly in Europe, networks have been established that lay the foundation for an effective system of collaboration.
Anderson, Mary B. Do No Harm: How Aid Can Support Peace-or War. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, April 1, 1999.
This book examines the positive and negative aspects of humanitarian aid by taking a look at this topic through the eyes of actual aid workers.
Ropers, Norbert. "Enhancing the Quality of NGO Work in Peacebuilding." In Peacebuilding: A Field Guide. Edited by Reychler, Luc and Thania Paffenholz, eds. Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner Publishers, January 1, 2001.
NGOs have become evermore involved in peacebuilding processes in recent times. However, many criticisms of NGO work have arisen as their presence has become more of a factor. This article addresses those criticisms and makes recommendations for how NGOs can improve their peacebuilding efforts.
Aall, Pamela, Lt. Col. Daniel Miltenberger and Thomas G. Weiss. Guide to IGOs, NGOs, and the Military in Peace and Relief Operations. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, November 1, 2000.
This book explains the roles, organizational cultures, and structures of inter-governmental organizations, non-governmental organizations, and militaries. It argues that the increased understanding of the three basic types of international peace building actors offered in the book will assist people in one sort of organization to understand and work with people in other sorts of organizations during peace operations. Click here for more info.
Verstappen, Beth and Hans Thoolen. Human Rights Missions: A Study of the Fact-Finding Practice of Non-Governmental Organizations. Boston: Martinus Nijhoff, 1986.
This book examines the standards and practices employed by non-governmental organizations engaging in fact-finding missions. The majority of the work is based on analysis of various fact-finding reports from example NGOs.
Anderson, Mary B. "Humanitarian NGOs in Conflict Intervention." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: USIP Press, 1996.
Anderson argues that humanitarian aid provided by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) "often becomes intertwined with the forces that drive the conflicts that prompted the aid in the first place." [p. 344] Anderson describes the basic missions of NGOs and the ways in which humanitarian aid can exacerbate conflicts. She describes and evaluates strategies NGOs have used to avoid exacerbating conflicts, and closes with suggestions on how these organizations might better proceed in the future. [online abstract]
Princen, Thomas. Intermediaries in International Conflict. Princeton University Press, 1995.
The author examines where mediation fits in the larger realm of diplomatic practice, going beyond the usual state-centric focus to account for the mediating activities of a wide range of actors-from superpowers to small states, from international organizations to nongovernmental groups.
Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall. "Introduction from "Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World"." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: USIP Press, 1999.
Bailey, Sydney D. "Non-Official Mediation in Disputes: Reflections on the Quaker Experience." International Affairs 61:2, 1985.
This article presents a discussion of the role of non-official mediators in international conflicts, such as Quakers. This article represents a relatively early take on the potential role of NGOs in peacemaking activities, as NGOs were just emerging as significant international actors in the mid-1980s. The author notes that the UN was not entirely prepared to relate to, nor effectively utilize the contributions of, NGOs at this point in time.
Aall, Pamela. "Nongovernmental Organizations and Peacemaking." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, January 1, 1996.
The author argues that NGOs have the potential to play key roles in restoring civil society and building peace. First, however, NGOs must recognize that their interventions do affect the course of conflicts, and "that their work in relief and development affects not only the social and economic well-being of their target groups, but also the larger political situation."
"The Conscience of the World." In The Influence of Non-Governmental Organization in the UN System. Edited by Willetts, Peter and Peter Willetts, eds. London: : Christopher Hurst for the David Davies Institute, 1996.
Pagnucco, Ron and Jackie Smith. "The Peace Movement and the Formulation of U.S. Foreign Policy." Peace and Change 18:2, April 1, 1993.
The authors of this article argue that the peace movement should expend more energy on efforts to democratize the process of foreign policy making if it hopes to be more effective in its aims.
The World is a More Dangerous Place - video. 1900.
Explores the complex issues of armed conflicts, peace-keeping operations and humanitarian relief as it relates to globalization. The show includes interviews with former United Nations officials and government officials, humanitarian aid relief workers and peace-keeping operations experts.
Return to Top
Examples Illustrating this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
Nation, Fitzroy. "Africa Nets: No Boundaries." Conflict Prevention Newsletter, Vol. 2, No. 3 , October 1, 1999
Available at: Click here for more info.
Networks of conflict prevention organizations have cast a blanket of peace building across Africa. The author argues that this process is creating an atmosphere where civil society on the African continent is developing less of a narrow national focus, and is becoming more sub-regional, regional, and even Pan-African in character and outlook.
Leenders, Reinoud. "Algeria: Civilians Trampled in a State of Turmoil." , 1999
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article describes the recent history of political conflict in Algeria, outlining the key issues and actors involved. In addition to background on the conflict and the many human rights abuses that have occurred, the piece discusses efforts toward democratization in Algeria, as well as peace work carried out by a number of non-governmental organizations.
Posthumus, Bram. "Angola: War Without End?." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article details the history of the Angolan conflict, and the processes that have been used to manage it. Much of the piece discusses the efforts of various United Nations' initiatives in Angola, as well as attempts by other NGOs to bring peace to the nation.
Baharvar, David. "Beyond Mediation: The Integral Role of Non-Governmental Approaches to Resolving Protracted Ethnic Conflicts in Lesser-Developed Countries." Online Journal of Peace and Conflict Resolution, Vol. 4, No. 1 , 2001
Available at: http://www.trinstitute.org/ojpcr/4_1baharvar.htm.
This article explains the short comings of Track One Diplomacy in resolving protracted ethnic conflict, and the advantages of non-governmental approaches.
Yevsyukova, Mariya. Bottom-Up Peacebuilding in Bosnia - Summary.
Available at: http://www.beyondintractability.org/articlesummary/10276/.
This page is a summary of the article Bottom-up Peace building in Bosnia, by Bruce Hemmer. Hemmer emphasizes the need for empowerment and building civil society in the Bosnia region. Parallel to this there should be efforts directed at reconciliation of the ethnic groups, including reduction of prejudice built up by propaganda and the healing of psychological war traumas. United together, these efforts constitute grass-roots peace-building, "a long-term grassroots cultural change project."
Havermans, Jos. "Burundi: Peace-Initiatives Help Stem the Violence." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article describes the peace initiatives that have been agreed upon in order to quell the violent ethnic conflict between majority Hutus and the minority Tutsis in Burundi. The article details the dynamics of the conflict as well as outlining the variety of peacemakign and peacebuilding activities that have occurred in the region.
United States Institute of Peace. Can Faith-Based NGOs Advance Interfaith Reconciliation?: The Case of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Available at: http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr103.html.
This report discusses various initiatives taken by faith-based NGOs to help facilitate reconciliation in Bosnia and Herzegovinia.
Slim, Randa M. "Central Asia: The Ferghana Valley: In the Midst of a Host of Crises." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This paper discusses the history of conflict in the Ferghana Valley of central Asia. The conflicts there have deep historical roots, and are now primarily over borders and resources. The valley is divided between Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan, with each side possessing ethno-nationalist motivations. The paper discusses hthe variety of crises faced by these nations and how this tense situation might be managed.
Lord, David. "Civil Society and Peacebuilding:The Role of the Inter-Religious Council of Sierra Leone." Accord, Vol. 9 , September 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article examines the history and role of the Inter-Religious Council of Sierra Leone (IRCSL) in negotiating the Lome Peace Agreement. The author argues that the IRCSL stands out as the most visible non-governmental bridge builder between opposing factions and Sierra Leone civil society.
Havermans, Jos. "Congo DR: Africa's Most Worrying Battle Field." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article details the dynamics of the war in the Democratic Republic of Congo, which has involved multiple warring factions from the region.
Kruhonja, Katarina, Ivan Stanic and Milan Ivanovic. "Croatia: Struggling with Unresolved Postwar Issues." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article outlines the dynamics of the war in Croatia and examines the post-conflict situation, namely the difficult transition from communism to democracy. The authors identify many unresolved issues that continue to cause problems such as the prosecution of war criminals, the return of refugees, the protection of minority rights, and reconciliation.
Leenders, Reinoud. "Egypt: State Control Versus Armed Islamic groups." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This is an article about the decades-long political conflict in Egypt between the state government and Islamic activists that want to participate in the nation's constitutional political life.
van Beurden, Jos. "Ethiopia/Eritrea: End in Sight to a Devastating War?." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This is an article about the ongoing conflict between Ethiopia and Eritrea. The paper outlines the political dynamics and the border dispute that lie at the center of the conflict. In addition, the author details various attempts at international mediation by outside actors as well as the efforts of nongovernmental organizations working in each country.
Faith-Based NGOs and International Peacebuilding.
Available at: http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr76.html.
This report discusses the importance of faith-based non-governmental organizations in international peacebuilding. These organizations deal with high-level mediation to training and peacebuilding through development at grassroots levels.
Mateeva, Anna. "Georgia: Peace Remains Elusive in Ethnic Patchwork." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This paper discusses ongoing tensions and problems in the Georgian region of Abkhazia, which are preventing the etablishment of a stable peace. The paper details the political dynamics of the situation, as well as describing a variety of peacemaking activities by nongovernmental organizations working in the region.
Seng, Mardi. Hope. From Sideshow to Genocide.
Available at: http://www.edwebproject.org/sideshow/stories/mardiseng.html.
A survivor of the Khmer Rouge describes how he was helped by an NGO.
van Beurden, Jos. "Kenya: Small Scale Conflicts Could Have Major Repercussions." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article examines Kenya's history of small internal conflicts (ethnic and political) and addresses the question of why they have never led to an all-out civil war.
Demichelis, Julia. NGOs and Peacebuilding in Bosnia's Ethnically Divided Cities. United States Institute of Peace (USIP).
Available at: http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/early/BosniaNGO.html.
This article presents a case example of the role of NGOs in peacebuilding processes in Bosnia. The report investigates the obstacles to investment in community-based peacebuilding in Bosnia. It begins with an overview of the political boundaries in many of Bosnia's municipalities that have prevented post-conflict reconstruction and reconciliation. The next section describes effective and ineffective strategies among aid donors and humanitarian-relief NGOs operating in these locales, followed by a case study of successful grassroots programs in the city of Gornji Vakuf. The report concludes with recommendations for NGOs and donor organizations.
Prendergast, John and David R. Smock. NGOs and the Peace Process in Angola. United States Institute of Peace (USIP).
Available at: http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/early/angola.html.
This report explores how Angolan and international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) can promote reconciliation in Angola as part of the postwar peace process. Recommendations include: organizing joint training programs and development projects that bring together local groups from the two opposing sides; using the media to promote peace, in part by training journalists; undertaking policy analysis of constitutional, economic, and educational issues to ensure that future government policies promote reconciliation; and developing a corps of trained mediators to mediate local and national disputes.
Havermans, Jos. "Rwanda: Rwandan Crisis Lingers on." , 1999
Available at: Click here for more info.
This is an article about the on going conflicts in Rwanda.
Lakicevic, Dragan, Maria Teresa Mauro and Zoran Lutovac. "Serbia: A New Beginning Taking Shape." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article examines security challenges in ethnically hetereogeneous regions of Serbia in the difficult aftermath of the Milosevic era. The article discusses how the international community and NGOs are working to ease ethnic tensions in the region.
van de Veen, Hans. "Uganda: Explosive Mix of Problems Could Re-ignite Civil War." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article discusses the state of Uganda in the aftermath of years of off-and-on civil war. The author details events and dynamics in Uganda that could potentially lead to another security breakdown after several years of relative stability.
Leenders, Reinoud. "Western Sahara: Africa's Last Colony." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This paper details the turbulent history of Western Sahara, which still struggles for clear-cut independence in the wake of its colonial history. Morocco has militarily dominated the territory since the end of colonial rule, but no official agreement has ever been reached.
Offline (Print) Sources
Thurfjell, Susanne. "'We Cannot Just Have Peace, We Also Have to Live'." In People Building Peace: 35 Inspiring Stories From Around the World. Edited by European Centre for Conflict Prevention, ed. Utrecht: European Centre for Conflict Prevention, 1999.
This chapter describes the Life and Peace Institute's work in supporting local peace processes both during the UN mission and afterward.
Ruth-Heffelbower, Duane. "Local Capacities for Peace Meets Conflict Resolution Practice." Journal of Peacebuilding & Development 1:1, 2002.
This case study of Ambon, Indonesia argues for the stronger use of development and aid groups in conflict prevention. It explains how the methods used by these organizations can help promote inter-group cooperation.
Jeffrey, Paul. "Many Roles, One Goal." In People Building Peace: 35 Inspiring Stories From Around the World. Edited by European Centre for Conflict Prevention, ed. Utrecht: European Centre for Conflict Prevention, 1999.
Discusses the role of religious organizations in the peace process in Guatemala.
Giro, Mario. "The Community of Sant'Egidio and its Peacemaking Activities." International Spectator, The 33:3, January 1, 1998.
Created in 1968 in Rome by high school students and enjoying a membership of 15,000, this organization volunteers in areas of the poor, and focuses on working for peace. Noted meditations have included Mozambique, 1990-1992, and Algeria 1994-5. As well as assisting in humanitarian efforts in Lebanon, El Salvado, Guatamal, Romania, Albania, Armenia, and the Horn of Africa.
"Voice of the Voiceless in Kenya." In People Building Peace: 35 Inspiring Stories From Around the World. Utrecht: European Centre for Conflict Prevention, 1999.
Discusses the Church Council's efforts to bridge ethnic divisions in Kenya.
Matthews, Dylan. War Prevention Works: 50 Stories of People Resolving Conflict. Oxford: Oxford Research Group, 2001.
This book offers concise descriptions of half a dozen joint projects from around the world. Notable examples include the coalition government that was formed in order to rally voters and vote out Slobodan Milosevic. Instead of competing with one another and potentially splitting the vote among themselves, they chose to join together in support of one candidate to oppose Milosevic. Another good example is the rebuilding of homes by joint Hutu and Tutsi groups in Burundi. Click here for more info.
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Audiovisual Materials on this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
Durban - NGO Meeting. NPR. August 29, 2001.
Available at: http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1128136.
This audio clip is an example of the role of NGOs, which in this instance is to work against racism.
Offline (Print) Sources
Kampuchea After Pol Pot. First Run Icarus Films. 1982.
This film documents the complexities involved in distributing aid in crisis situations. It centers on obstacles humanitarian aid organizations faced when they entered Kampuchea, Cambodia after the collapse of the Pol Pot regime.
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