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Perhaps the most destructive conflict dynamic, escalation is the cycle of provocation and counter-provocation that can quickly transform constructive conflicts into destructive ones; tractable conflicts into intractable ones. This set of essays examines the process of escalation in detail. The first essay, on escalation in general, examines its causes and its effects. It also looks at models of how and why escalation occurs, and briefy, how it can be stopped or reversed. (An entire section of the knowledge base, however, is devoted to de-escalatory interventions and processes, so remedies are mentioned only briefly in the introductory escalation essay.)
The second essay in this section discusses how escalation can be used constructively. Although often destructive, escalation is at times necessary to raise people's awareness of a conflict. As Mai're Dugan discusses in her essay on Peaceful Change Strategies, sometimes one of the parties (most often the more powerful party) is unaware that there is a problem at all. It takes what Lou Kriesberg calls Constructive Escalation to raise the parties' awareness enough to get the problem addessed.
A third essay in this section is on polarization. Some theorists consider polarization a phase of escalation; others believe it is a separate process. It is so important that we felt it warranted its own essay in this section.
Use the following to cite this article:
Burgess, Heidi. "Escalation and Related Processes." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: September 2003 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/escalation_polarization/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
Galtung, Johan. "Conflict, War and Peace: A Bird's Eye View." ,
Available at: http://www.transcend.org/topbasic.htm.
Johan Galtung discusses the many variations and sub-types of violence and war and presents conflict resolution approaches that offer the potential for avoiding or mitigating violence and war. He also addresses the issue of polarization and explains how conflicts escalate.
Carment, David and Patrick James. "Escalation of Ethnic Conflict: A Survey and Assessment." ,
Available at: http://http-server.carleton.ca/~dcarment/papers/escalati.html.
This article attempts to answer the question: Why are some multi-ethnic states susceptible to violent escalation, state breakdown and collapse while others are not? In doing so, the authors use a framework consisting of five analytical components. First, they assess basic structural determinants of violence. The second section examines interactions between ethnic groups as a source of violent behavior. Third, is an evaluation of the role of international factors. Fourth, and finally, the conclusion reviews the factors that contribute most significantly to the violent escalation of ethnic conflict.
Lake, David A. and Donald S. Rothchild. "Ethnic Fears and Global Engagement: The International Spread and Management of Ethnic Conflict." , January 1996
Available at: Click here for more info.
The Institute on Global Conflict and Cooperation's (IGCC) project on the International Spread and Management of Ethnic Conflict was formed and designed to address concerns about the escalation and spread of transnational ethnic conflict, particularly in Eastern Europe. This paper attemtps to answer two central questions: 1) How, why, and when do ethnic conflicts spread across national borders?; 2) How can such transnational ethnic conflicts best be managed?
General Information on Escalation.
Available at: http://www.colorado.edu/conflict/peace/problem/escalation.htm.
This web page presents some general information on conflict escalation and outlines its dynamics and negative effects. It suggests that escalation alone is sufficiently powerful to transform what should be a tractable dispute into one that is virtually impossible to resolve.
Polarization.
Available at: http://www.colorado.edu/conflict/peace/problem/polariz.htm.
In an effort to build their power base, parties often seek alliances with other interest groups, which agree to help each other as they pursue their separate objectives. In order to remain competitive, interest groups tend to form as many alliances as possible. Over time, this process tends to divide communities into two large and opposing alliances--a process called "polarization."
Jameson, Jessica K. "The Escalation and De-escalation of Intractable Conflict." Communicating War and Terror ,
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article examines Terrell Northrup's theory of conflict escalation, and raises important questions that must be asked if we want to gain insights into the events of September 11th.
Offline (Print) Sources
Kriesberg, Louis. Constructive Conflicts: From Escalation to Resolution, 2nd Edition. New York: Rowman and Littlefield, November 2002.
This volume discusses the catalysts and phases of conflict as well as the processes of conflict resolution. It identifies the complexities of constructive conflicts and outlines case studies of intractable conflict moving towards resolution.
Brockner, Joel and Jeffrey Z. Rubin. Entrapment in Escalating Conflicts. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1985.
This work is a social-psychological investigation into the phenomena of entrapment. The authors attempt to synthesize findings from a number of studies into a general account of entrapment. Entrapment in Escalating Conflicts will be of interest to those who seek a better theoretical understanding of the factors and processes which produce entrapment, and promote conflict escalation. This work is divided into eleven chapters, with subject and author indices.
Click here for more info.
Bartos, Otomar J. and Paul Wehr. "Escalation and De-Escalation." In Using Conflict Theory. New York: Cambridge University Press, January 1, 2002. Pages: 98-121.
In chapter 7, the authors discuss unilateral escalation, reciprocated escalation, and hostility-driven escalation. They argue that three forces drive a party's escalatory actions: its own interests, acts of its opponent, and its hostility. Various psychological processes, including cognitive dissonance, selective perception, and entrapment, act as positive feedbacks that increase conflict solidarity and contribute to escalation.
Stein, Janice Gross. "Image, Identity and Conflict Resolution." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996.
In an effort to establish or defend group identity, groups identify their distinctive attributes as virtues and regard the attributes of the opposing side as vices. This need for group identity often polarizes groups with conflicting interests and goals, and gives rise to damaging stereotypes and enemy images. Such psychological processes contribute to conflict escalation. Click here for more info.
Kim, Sung Hee and Richard H. Smith. "Revenge and Conflict Escalation." Negotiation Journal 9:1, January 1993.
Revenge is the attempt to inflict harm in return for harm, which typically leads conflict on an escalatory path. One party's acts of vengeance tend to provoke the other party's counter-revenge, causing a reciprocal chain of harsh behavior. But although vengeance is typically destructive in this way, it is not always irrational. In many cases, it arises out of a genuine sense of injustice. Parties must strive to deal with their vengeful feelings in productive ways.
Pruitt, Dean G., Jeffrey Z. Rubin and Sung Hee Kim. Social Conflict: Escalation, Stalemate, and Settlement, 2nd Edition. New York: McGraw Hill College Division, January 1, 1994.
In chapter one, Kriesberg explores the various stages of conflict and suggests that the dynamics of escalation often contribute to a conflicts destructiveness. He also presents a simplified conflict cycle in which conflicts typically emerge, escalate, de-escalate, and then eventually get resolved. In chapter six, the author discusses the escalation stage of conflict in more detail and out lines the processes, conditions, and policies that often generate destructive struggles. Click here for more info.
Teger, A. I. Too Much Invested to Quit: The Psychology of the Escalation of Conflict. New York: Pergamon Press, 1980.
This book explores the social-pscyhological processes that motivate parties to commit themselves to intense and destructive social conflicts.
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